Hospitality industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hospitality industry - Essay Example The activities include business, leisure and for other purposes. A tour operator is a person or a company that creates and markets inclusive tours with the sub-contractors to make a package. Most of the tour operators sell through travel agencies and directly to the clients. The player gathers and distributes marketing research and helpful information about the marketing information. They find the customers and use persuasive language to convince the tourist to take the offers made by the tour site owners and operators. The people shape and match the offers with the tourist’s needs and budget for the best offer (Page 2011). They agree to the terms of payment between the customer and owner and assume financial risks. Aer Lingus are tour operators who take their visitors right from Bournemouth Airport. The operators book their clients in sea-view beach resorts. It is a convenient place for their customers as it is easy for the players to take them for boat rides and snorkelling. The heritage site is also a nice place to take the tourists as it shows the culture of the Bournemouth people. Old people in Bournemouth are caring and welcoming to foreigners. Most of the tourists that visit Bournemouth are older couples who look forward to a relaxing vacation. Travel agents purpose is to Plan and sells transportation and accommodations for the tour operators and travel agency clients. The companies determine the destinations for the tourists, means of transport, cost, travel dates and the housing required. Some travel agents also sell tour packages to the tourists. Hays Travel is the largest travel agency in the United Kingdom that transports tourist to and from the UK. The travel agency advises clients on the particular type of hotel they need to stay while on tour. The cottages are also an option if one does not like hotels. The travel agency can fly one from Bournemouth to Antalya, Turkey. It is a coastal town

Assignment 11 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Assignment 11 - Essay Example The article gives the reader an opportunity to appreciate the role and impact of action research within the educational setting. In essence, the author captures the processes involved in action research in relation to maximizing the benefits. In addition, this is a research process that has the capacity to revitalize the entire learning process in most academic spheres. In addition to adding value to the learning process, action research creates critical grounds to reflect and evaluate teaching approaches (Arnold, 2008). It is therefore a necessary tool that can be used to support various initiatives by individual teachers, teaching communities, and organizations. Essentially, one cannot ignore the nature of data collection procedures used in action research. The author sheds light on the necessary aspects that one should consider when conducting action research (Arnold, 2008). It is an invaluable tool that offers a range of opportunities for the learners and the teachers. Essentially, when one is capable of conducting a study within their field makes it possible to address issues that are facing a system. The qualitative techniques in use when conducting action research set the stage for solving problems and enhancing practice. The reader further gets the details of how action research can enable the researcher to interpret as well as formulate acceptable solutions and practical steps towards local problems. One of the benefits that come with such an approach includes the ability to seek viable and realistic explanations to some of the general problems facing an education system. Some of the realities that the researcher faces on a day to day basis are grounds for gathering factual data. Due to this, the researcher does not have the luxury of following laid out procedures. Such a position calls for innovative data collection techniques that will focus on the importance of the data at hand (Arnold, 2008). The emphasis on the significance of

Marries Is Better Than Being Single Essay Example for Free

Marries Is Better Than Being Single Essay There are lots of discussion and arguments about to being single or getting married nowadays. The new generation might not willing to bound into marriage life and they wish to remain in single life so they can have more privacy, freedom and the commitment of   responsibilities. However, marriage is union ordained by God and it is also a wonderful union of two people in love. It is unique, opposite-sex union with legal, social, economic and spiritual dimensions. Getting married does bring a lot of advantages to a person either family. The biggest advantage for getting married is emotional stability. Married people treat their own family as shelter and they can feel secure and relax when staying together with their family. Family provides a peace and comfort zone for those married people to restore their energy. Marriage can helps the couple to become more tolerant, unselfish, caring and more responsible. Its provide a chances for the husband and wife to grow with and sharing their life’s challenges, rewards and sorrows with a person who actually knows and understand what you going through and feels the same frequency. There are a lots of difficulties have to learn by marriage people as that is not easiest to living with someone for the rest of their life. They have to overcome all the problems facing by them and to learn how to take care of others feeling, patience, emotion control, temper, time management and attitude towards their family. In a marriage life, there are always someone’s to hear your companions. It is good to have someone there to have a share, to bounce ideas or to have a witty exchange of remarks. Companionship among the married peoples also offers support and can be particularly important at times of trouble or stress. At such times, married people have distinct advantages over being single. The other advantage for marriage is that allows couples to pool their both incomes to share the cost of living and debts, save more money for retirement and doing investment. The married people can also sharing a house, car and food so they can enjoy save cost for basic living conditions compare with a single person. Therefore, people who are married become less poverty but more wealth and their money goes further. It is because, they tend to specialize, exchange, and share roles and functions in ways to generate higher earnings, encourage savings, helping each other’s to restrain from impulse spending, and generally leave the family financially better off. Marriage can also leads to better health and greater longevity for people. There are more likely to enjoy better physical health. The spouses are intimately aware of and impacted by their spouse’s choices. In a sense, couples have a significant vested interest in watching out for one another and encouraging healthy choices and behaviour. For example, the wife might not allow her husband drinking, smoking or other unnecessary risk-taking and also control his weights. Compared to single, divorced or widowed people, the married people experience less depression, anxiety, and other types of psychological distress. Besides, the married people will have active, satisfying and safety sex lives compared with single people. The married people tend to have more sex because it costs them less in time, money and psychic energy. They have find it more satisfying because their sex partner is more available, less distracted, more eager and more secure and able to please. The higher levels of satisfaction for married couples is related to the fact that marriage adds meaning to the sexual act because it symbolizes a union that is based on sexual fidelity, stronger commitment and emotional intimacy. It had increased their commitment and their sense of responsibility, and had generally strengthened their relationships. In addition, the married life can brings greater safety towards the married people and expand their social network. It’s because, the married people have companion to visit places together, visit friends or holiday together. For the single person, that is far more difficult as often modern social life is geared around couples and the single person can often feel left out or sometimes, simply not invited. At times, perhaps, having children might seem to impede their social life but it just brings a change in your social life and much of that social life involves being with your children. Lastly, married people will create a family with a new and challenging life instead of boring life compared with single people. Families are created and held together by the lifelong commitment of a man and a woman who live cooperatively and raise and nurture the children born to them. Families are the building block essential to the formation of a community, and strong social structure arises from the foundation many families provide. A thriving society and culture depend on stable marriages. For example, as marriage declines in a culture,  the state must spend more money and care for children who less of the financial stability with divorce family background. Strong marriages statuses are at the heart of thriving family and community. In conclusion, getting married is better than being single as there married leads to emotional stability, financial stability, train the couples become more independent and responsible, better health and greater longevity, have wonderful sexual life, easy to expand social networks and have a new challenging life instead of boring life compared to single people. Getting married is not an easy but it does bring a lot of meaningful to individuals, family and the community.

Training Required To Be A Soccer Player

Training Required To Be A Soccer Player Soccer players need a combination of fitness attributes such as strength, endurance, power, co-ordination, speed and agility, in order to perform and play at a high intensity considering games last 90 minutes plus, therefore as stated by (Stolen et al, 2005) success depends on players being mentally, physically, technically and tactically prepared for competition. Within this assignment I will outline the preparation requirements for a soccer player under the following headings: Strength Training, Endurance Training, Speed Agility and Quickness Training. While doing so I will give general information on each of the three topics, and then move on to give information about the specific requirements for the soccer player. Strength Training: According to Darden, (1992) Well developed, strong, lean body parts will help any athlete or non-athlete perform better. Pg: 45 Stated by Croisier et al., (2005) Strength training is very important for any competing athlete, as it corrects muscle imbalances and reduces the risk of injury, for safety it is important for everyone taking part in strength training to use a spotter and apply good lifting technique to avoid injury. Strength training is also important for non-athletes as it enhances quality of life for people as they can go about everyday tasks such as getting out of bed, getting dressed, carrying shopping bags, walking up stairs etc. (Evans, 1999). Strength training can be divided into three phases such as absolute maximal strength, explosive power, and lastly muscular endurance. McDonagh and Davies, (1984) stated that maximal strength is the biggest force that can be exerted in a single maximum voluntary contraction. According to Stone, (1981) maximal strength is proven to increase jumping ability and motor performance. The athletes main goal is to build as much maximal strength as possible so that they can turn this strength into muscular endurance and explosive power. Explosive power can be developed using a combination of heavy, moderate and light weights (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004). Plyometric training has been shown to be one of the most effective methods for improving and enhancing explosive power (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004) which occurs when the active muscle switches from rapid eccentric muscle action to rapid concentric muscle action (Luebbers et al, 2003). The purpose of plyometrics is to improve the athletes capacity to apply more force more rapidly. Therefore, the greater the athletes ability to generate maximal force or strength to begin with, the more this maximal force and strength can be converted into sport-specific power. According to Dick, (2007) a complex form of training develops muscular endurance, circuit type training which concentrates on soccer specific exercises works well. He states that including a variety of different exercises, movements, as well as equipment combinations and training methods in the circuits will help keep athletes motivated. More sports specific exercises may include using high box step ups rather than lying leg press for the leg muscles, water resistance for training leg muscles, swiss ball for working on core stability and balance. Dynamic movements such as headers, tackling, sprinting and kicks all involve a high level of muscle strength, endurance and power. Players need strength to defend against components who try to push them off the ball while in the air or on the ground, (Cabri et al, (1988). Therefore it is important for athletes to improve their soccer specific strength in the preparation period as the athlete needs to be capable of using muscle strength and power effectively and also consistently within a game and during the season Bangsbo, (1994). As stated by Bompa, (2009) the soccer players performance during the season depends on their adaption and psychological adjustment to training and competitions, and their development of skills and abilities. The duration of each of the stages below depends firstly on the competition schedule and also on the time the athlete needs to increase their level of training and athletic shape, therefore an adequate planning schedule of training and fixtures needs to be put in place. According to Davis et al, (1992) the strength training program for the soccer player is dependent on their positions which can be broken down into four stages goalkeeper, defender, midfield, and attacker given that the athletes need to build up strength and power in relation to their position on the field and what is expected of them. Sport specific training provides a stronger relationship to the soccer player then general strength training because of the way it works the muscles, the speed of the movement and the actual sporting performance Dick, (2007). The following specific requirements for the soccer player were retrieved from Bompa and Carrera, (2005); Dick, (2007); Hoff and Helgerud, (2004); Shepard, (2006) Off season In the off-season the soccer player is in the preparation stage their training to train. After their recovery and adequate rest, soccer players work on building up muscles and a solid functional strength base, they achieve this by preparing the body for more intense work in later phases, strengthening the stabiliser muscles and working on improving imbalances in the body. As soccer players in general have over developed quads from repetitive kicking action therefore they need to work on balancing flexors and extensors also, in order to reduce the risk of injury later on in the season, Off season- Early pre season In this phase the soccer player needs to build maximal strength, since power is the overall outcome, the athlete needs to develop strength first and then convert it into soccer specific power. Late pre season In the late pre season the athlete needs to keep working on muscle power and strength endurance, converting strength gains into soccer specific power and muscle endurance. For this stage plyometrics and/or circuit training should replace weight room sessions. In season-maintance During this phase the soccer player needs to maintain the gains they have made so far in the season without over reaching and overtraining. The athlete should be balanced and muscles should not be under stress, the athletes upper and lower body should be working in cohesion minimizing shock and stress and therefore reducing the risk of injury. Bobbert and Van Soest, (1994) stated that muscle training exercises need to be affiliated with sport specific motions so that the athlete can regulate their control and therefore take advantage of their enhanced muscle properties. Endurance Training: According to Tinley, (1994) endurance training involves athletes being able to keep going for long periods of time, and it also requires a high level of stamina, to develop and maintain aerobic fitness and build endurance. Non-athletes might partake in endurance training in order to improve their quality of life, so they can walk up the stairs without wheezing or run a 10k run in six months time. Stone and Kilding, (2009) stated that soccer players need a high level of aerobic fitness in order to produce and maintain power output during repeated high intensity efforts and in order to recover quickly. Bangsbo et al, (1994); Franks et al, (1999) have observed training intensities deemed suitable for endurance training, during small sided soccer games and on a dribbling track. The size of pitch, intensity, duration and number of players were also seen to have an influence on reaching target heart rate zone. As stated by Bangsbo, (1994) approximately 90% of energy during a soccer game is from aerobic sources, therefore heart rate is a valid indicator of exercise intensity for most of the training. Anaerobic endurance is important for soccer players especially strikers, they require short bursts of anaerobic power when sprinting for a ball, Shepard, (2006). The soccer player requires the following endurance training for the duration of the season Off season During the off season the athlete needs adequate rest and recovery in order to start preparation for the season as soon as possible, Bompa and Carrera, (2005). Off season- Early pre season During this stage the team takes part in small sided conditioning games, dribbling tracks, interval training or circuit training that include specific movement and skill development activities. The fitness program in this stage concentrates on aerobic and short term anaerobic endurance, Lawson, (2001); Meir et al, (2001). Late pre season The team have increased emphasis on training with the ball in order to transfer the skills and movements into their competitive environment. They are still working on drills and training programs from the last stage, although intensity has increased and sports specific adoptions have been made. The athletes develop decision making and problem solving skills under pressure and fatigue, Kelly, (2009); Little, (2006). In season-maintance During the in season the team have to maintain the aerobic fitness and sport specific skills they have acquired over the pre season training stages and apply them to their performances, Stone and Kilding, (2009). Speed Agility and Quickness Training: Speed, agility and quickness (SAQ) training is important for athletes especially those who play a sport that involves a high level of dynamic movement such as, changing direction, headers, tackling, sprinting and kicks. SAQ enables athletes to develop faster reactions so that they can accelerate more quickly and effectively, move successfully in multiple directions, change direction and decelerate quickly in order improve performance on the pitch, Pearson, (2000). Stated by Brown et al., (2000) speed, agility and quickness training drills are used to develop co-ordination, balance, and optimise neuromuscular patterning and condition. Shepherd, (2006) speed can be trained and learned through repetition and overload, speed is the athletes ability to move in the right direction through the required range of motion as fast as possible. Agility is rapid changes in direction without the loss of speed, balance, or body control, it can be improved by the use of agility ladders. Quickness this is the reaction time and the ability to move fast without hesitation. The following specific requirements for the soccer player for SAQ training were retrieved from Bompa and Carrera, (2005); Polman et al, (2003). Off season The athletes need adequate rest and recovery, in order to start preparation for season as soon as possible, Bompa and Carrera, (2005). Off season- Early pre season Teams start to train with agility ladders to improve foot speed and foot to ground contact, sprints, hops in different directions, push-ups, dribbling around cones, spot running, turn and sprint drills, working at moderate to high intensity, and adequate rest between repetitions. Late pre season Teams continue speed, agility and quickness training like last season but incorporate adaptions resisted sprints, one on one games, more sport specific movements and increase intensity of training. In season-maintance To maintain speed, agility and quickness, and their reactions that the SAQ training has taught them over the pre season training and apply the above to their performances on the pitch. Conclusion: In conclusion to this assignment on the preparation requirements for a soccer player, the following headings have been explained giving general information, Strength Training, Endurance Training, Speed Agility and Quickness Training, then moving on to give specific information about the requirements for the soccer player. According to Kraemer et al, (2004) an adequate mixture of soccer specific practices and strength and conditioning programmes which require the development of aerobic capacity, strength, power, speed, and speed endurance, can sustain and develop a soccer players physical performance therefore allowing the athlete to perform at their best throughout the whole season.

Mythic Heros: Sinbad The Sailor :: essays research papers

Mythic Heros: Sinbad the Sailor   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When I think about mythic heroes, for many years the first name that came to mind was Sinbad: Sinbad the sailor. In his days as an adventurer, he went on seven fantastic voyages which earned him fame for the rest of his life. Yet, now in retrospect, I no longer consider him to be the great adventurer that I saw him as in my childhood.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On his seven voyages, Sinbad encountered every obstacle one could possibly think of. He and his crew met up with: a fish so large, many mistook it for an island, an island where rocs (enormous birds (their eggs were often mistaken for buildings)) still lived, cannibals, giants, and even herds of angry elephants. On each and everyone one of his famed voyages, he was shipwrecked, alone, and faced with some hideous danger. On each and everyone, he overcame the odds, destroyed his foes, and returned home with riches beyond the imagination.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a child, the stories of Sinbad's voyages were wildly entertaining. In each one, there was adventure, danger, money, and the hero always came home in one piece. Now that I look back at the stories, there are some parts of Sinbad's fantastic tales that bother me.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First of all, Sinbad never set out in search of adventure. These amazing things just seemed to always happen to him. He normally set out as a merchant, carrying goods from one exotic land to another. Yet, on each of these trips, something incredible happened to him and his crew, resulting in a dead crew and a fantastic story for Sinbad the sailor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secondly, all of Sinbad's great adventures occurred sequentially. In other words, he went immediately from one adventure to another without so much as a nap in between. This man never had a quiet boat ride in the entire span of time in which his adventures took place.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another interesting point is the manner in which Sinbad always left and returned to his home port in Baghdad. All seven times, he left with a full crew and carrying the goods of a local merchant. Yet all seven times he returned, he was alone, the crew having died in the early part of the respective adventure. All seven times, he returned without the goods that he was to take to market, but he often returned with new riches from the island where he was stranded (and of course, kept them for himself). This leads me to believe that maybe his crew

The Influence and Role of the Islamic Tradition in Turkey Essay

Islam has been a dominant force throughout Turkish history. During the Ottoman Empire, Islam ruled every part of the theocratic state, but after the demise of the empire, Turkey's rulers led the country away from political Islam. The modern Turkish state has a strictly secular government, and Islam has been relegated to the personal sphere. Although Turkey has experienced a rise in fundamentalism in the past twenty years, the separation of church and state has remained relatively intact. Even with this increase of fundamentalist Islam, the wide majority of Muslims in Turkey are moderate and tolerant. They have adapted to modern life and value Islam for its moral and spiritual messages. Islam is a guide for right living and ethical conduct rather than a political system. Turkey constantly struggles to balance Islamic life with a secular government. Although the government wants to maintain a strict separation between religion and politics, it cannot ignore the power and influence that Islam has in the lives of the Turkish people. History of Islam in Turkey ?In the 8th century, the first Turkish-speaking tribes migrated westward from central Asia and began converting to Islam.? They became Sunni Muslims, who follow the most orthodox form of Islam.? Islam appealed to these nomads because it was a simple faith with straightforward requirements.? Many were so passionate about the faith that they became ghazis, ?warriors for the faith. Fighting the Byzantines, they began to conquer the lands of Anatolia in the name of Islam.? The Ottomans, one of the Turkish clans, became the dominant leaders of this new land and united the scattered Turkish tribes.? By the 12th century, a new wave of Turkish immigrants who followe... .... Path: Kandil. 11 Brosnahan 12 Scarf row mars Turkey anniversary. Oct. 29 2003. Web. Dec. 10 2013. 13 Other articles of interest:?Hardy, Roger. ?Islam in Turkey: Odd one out.? Web. Dec. 10 2013. 14?Narli, Nilufer. ?The Rise of the Islamist Movement in Turkey.? Middle East Review of International 15?Affairs. Sept. 1999. Web. Dec. 6 2013.. 16?Democratizing Islam in Turkey.? Christian Science Monitor. Web. Dec. 2 2013.. 17Kili, Dr. Suna. ?Islam and Secularism in Contemporary Turkey.? Voice of Ataturk: Ataturk Society of America. Web. Dec. 10 2013. .

Outline and assess the main positions in the secularisation debate

Abstract This essay tackles the main positions of the secularisation debate. To begin with, this essay examines the ‘bottom up/demand-side’ theory of secularisation, which postulates that as societies go through the process of industrialisation, the religious values that underpin the societal fabric will inevitably erode as the citizenry become more impervious to spiritual pursuits. This essay also examines the importance of the ‘market’ approach to the theory of secularisation, arguing that the top down/supply side perspective is of fundamental significance in order to understand the persistence of religious practice in modern societies. Introduction The secularisation debate has acquired a growing influence in recent years, due to the onset of the postmodern age. Postmodernism posits that in the age of instantaneous communications and ubiquitous access to technology, rigid and fixed classifications pertaining to religion, class, gender and race have been significantly eroded. The main positions in the secularisation debate focus on two distinct approaches (Fitzgerald, 2000: 133). The first perspective that is postulated for examination relates to the ‘bottom up/demandside’ idea of secularisation. According to this view, as societies go through the process of industrialisation, the religious values that underpin the societal fabric will inevitably erode as the publics become more impervious to spiritual pursuits (Gauchet, 1999: 40). At the same time’, the ‘top down/supply side’ theory of secularisation, which highlights that the need for spirituality remains constant across national boundaries, p laces a great deal of emphasis on the role of religions institutions in maintaining adherence to theological principles. This essay will begin by charting the idea that secularisation responds to the gradual phasing out of religious values in modern societies. The second part of the essay will concentrate in the manner in which these values are permanently re-imposed on societies by religious leaders and organisation. Crucially, the second section of the essay highlights the importance of the ‘market’ approach to the theory of secularisation, arguing that the top down/supply side perspective is of fundamental significance in order to understand the persistence of religious practice in modern societies. The bottom up/demand side theory of secularisation The main view propounded by this theory of secularisation is that the advent of the scientific method and rational observation as a method to create societal improvement has shaken the theological foundations that were influential in shaping the evolution of the Western world (Gauchet, 1999: 45). The erosion of supernatural interpretations of the nature of the world has been a permanent cultural phenomenon in the Western world since the advent of the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on universal categorisation that could be subject to empirical observation and rational testability standards (Martin, 1993: 93). The rational template endorsed by industrialised societies rendered the theological claims imposed by the major religions incompatible with the needs of the existence of human collective that relied in an increasing manner on the benefits brought forward by technological advancement (Martin, 2005: 55). There was a gradual and consistent loss of religious faith in Western societ ies that ultimately resulted in the unravelling of theological practices and Church attendances (Martin, 1993: 97). In addition, this provoked a relative corrosion of the social and cultural meanings attached to religious identity, along with a move away from allegiance to political parties and organisations based on denominational values. According to this theory of secularisation, religious and scientific values are at loggerheads, with a constant undermining of Bible teachings by making reference to the Darwinian teachings put together in the theory of evolution (Martin, 1969: 25). The knowledge gained by society through scientific advancement and its application to technological improvements, coupled with the expansion of education opportunities, impacted on the cultural changes that were ushered in Western societies. It could be posited that the tenets of the Enlightenment undercut the metaphysical principles that were responsible for maintaining societal cohesion during the Middle Ages (Martin, 2005: 59). Thinkers like Max Weber stated that the onset of industrialisation and mass capitalism produced an environment of opinion conducive to reducing the idea of the supernatural to the domain of human rationality and subjected to the explanations taken from the hard sciences rather than making reference to metaphysical arguments (Gauchet, 1999: 49). The attainments made by Western societies in the sciences and the feats that took place in the realm of engineering and technology has emphasised the importance of subjecting nature to the control of man (Bruce, 2002: 59). These developments were responsible for a change of perception regarding the advent of personal tragedies and natural disasters on the part of a growing number of individuals, who started to regard those eventsin rational terms, instead of attributing them to mysterious forces outside the control of man. Accordingly, the intellectual authority held by religious ministers became just one of the sources of knowledge to be taken into account (Berger, 1969: 30). Their authority was put in direct competition with the people who displayed their professional expertise across many fields of study and who made use of the rational method. At the same time, the gradual separation between state and church that took place in many European nations and the United States, couple d with the emergence of bureaucratic apparati and modern political parties led to the discrediting of traditional religious institutions. The industrialisation of Western societies had attached to it a series of changes that impacted upon the ability of individuals to experience mystical experienced (Harris, 2005: 61). This includes the steep decline in communal life, the fragmentation between nature and man and the increased use of technology. It is worth mentioning that the interpretation put forward by Max Weber regarding the bottom up/demand side theory of secularisation is based on the effects that the Lutheran Reform and the industrial revolution had on the development of political and religious life in Western Europe and North American (Idinopulos and Wilson, 1998: 101). The idea of disenchantment with the world, as propounded by Weber, compelled individuals to seek salvation in the pursuit of material gain, hence eroding the very foundations of transcendental Christian thin king (Tremlett, 2009: 22). The growing importance of Rationalism was necessarily conducive to being sceptical about the existence of an omnipotent and omniscient God, ultimately resulting in the debunking of religion as a method of explain natural phenomena (Bruce, 2002: 67). It is also important to stress that a bottom up/demand side theory of secularisation can also be understood according the functionalist perspective underlined by Emile Durkheim (Durkheim, 1912, 1995: 73). The French sociologist identified the loss of functional purpose as one of the main reasons behind the erosion of the centrality of religion in the institutional make-up of modern societies (Norris, 2004: 130). This functionalist perspective highlights the idea that a scheme of theology does not just represent a system of beliefs about the nature of existence (Asad, 2003: 90). Instead, it is also a framework of actions concerning certain and certain rituals and symbolism that are performed to signpost the passage of time across the person’s natural lifespan (Durkheim, 1912, 1995: 30). These symbolisms were responsible for maintaining a high degree of social cohesion and stability, hence producing common goods that could be enjoyed by all members of society (Davie, 1994: 88). Conversely, the industrialisation Western European and North American societies generated the fragmentation of the social space by inducing process of technical differentiation that dispersed the sources of knowledge (Wilson, 1966: 76). The specialisation of knowledge production stripped the ecclesiastical authorities of the powers that they had in determining which epistemological approaches should be pursued and how the knowledge created was to be disseminated (McCutcheon, 2003: 119). In addition, all the charity organisations of Christian extraction that had for centuries been in charge of providing for the disenfranchised members of society were replaced by welfare states subsidised by government institutions (Bruce, 2002: 62). These events were the immediate result of the reappraisal of the role of religious doctrines and organisation. By the late nineteenth century, the doctrines and practices proposed by the Church were not deemed to be functional to the task of ensuring th e material welfare of the population (Tremlett, 2009: 19). Instead, the state had become a kind of secular god that had encroached into many areas of the lives of individuals (Berger, 1969: 147). This entailed that the role of religious institutions were strictly confined to the personal realm; in the public domain, the faith gradually ceased to become a powerful force in the shaping of the political evolution of the nation. The top up/supply side theory of secularisation The views exposed in the previous section can be juxtaposed to the perspective highlighted by the top up/supply side theory of secularisation. This perspective underlines the conditions brought about by the spread of religious freedom in contemporary societies, which led to a competitive environment in the market for religious adherents amongst theological organisations (Davie, 1994: 93). This view makes an analogy between theological organisations and business firms, all of which struggle in order to capture a growing segment of the market. The top up/supply side theory of secularisation postulates that the competition between different religious denominations has a positive impact on the preservation of religion as a vibrant force in society (Asad, 2003: 33). This approach explains the manner in which, for example, the level of religious adherence is larger in countries like the United States, where the different theological denomination are engaged in permanent competition in orde r to attract new adherents (Idinopulos and Wilson, 1998: 111). This theory puts forward the notion that an intense competition between the different denominations result in churches striving to keep a dynamic spiritual environment in their congregations, hence helping to retain the relevance of religion in their community (Harris, 2005: 58). In the United States, this has generated a situation in which the older denominations such as Lutherans, Catholics and Presbyterians are losing ground to the evangelical religious organisations. Whilst the evangelical movements demand a great deal of effort on the part of the would-be adherents, they also offer a more intense religious experience than the older denominations; which seems to be a determinant factor in attracting support for their cause (Asad, 1993: 145). Furthermore, the top up/supply side theory of secularisation posits that in cases where religious life is dominated by theological organisations that are directly subsidised by the state, the clergy seems to be less keen to engage with the community of believers, hence leading to the decay of spiritual life in their communities (Stark and Iannaccone, 1994: 232). This theoretical approach seems to replicate the idea that state-owned organisations, be them of an economic or religious nature, tend to be less innovative than private ones (Davie, 1994: 19). For example, in Northern Europe, the established Protestant churches are able to fend off the threat posed by other Christian denominations (Wilson, 1966: 58). This means that the clergy does not have to overexert itself in order to attract the attention of their would-be religious adherents (Asad, 2003: 14). Consequently, this led to a situation in which religious attendance declined in a significant manner, since the number of optio ns available in the spiritual market tends to be quite reduced (McCutcheon, 2003: 46). However, this does not explain the reasons behind the consistently high levels of religious attendance in Southern European and Latin American countries, in spite of the monopoly enjoyed by the Catholic Church (Martin, 1969: 28). It could be argued that a pluralist religious template as the basis for a high level of religious attendance represents a theoretical blueprint that can only be successfully applied to particular settings (Berger, 1969: 61). It would appear that many of the tenets espoused by this particular theory of secularisation are not based on a sound methodological framework (Harris, 2005: 55). To be sure, the idea of a competitive religious market as an instrument that allows countries to reverse religious decline can only be applied to the United States, which is a society that has traditionally been based around the development of communal life; strongly informed by religious v alues in order to connect individuals to their particular cultural and geographical setting (Asad, 1993: 66). At the same time, it has been argued that the level of religious attendance have remained quite consistent across the ages, which entails that there have been no substantial secularisation process as a result of the onset of modernity (McCutcheon, 2003: 48). In addition, it has been noted that the ‘market’ theory of religion can provide a sound basis for explaining overall trends in religious adherence (Stark, 1999: 249). In fact, in Western societies, periods of low attendance alternated with periods of higher levels of religious fervour (Idinopulos and Wilson, 1998: 98). It is therefore important to concede the possibility that the top up/supply side theory of secularisation may provide with a sound framework of reference in order to examine the level of religious adherence in across the ages (Stark, 1993: 389). It would appear that the postmodern condition do es not necessarily mar the possibility of a reconstitution of religious life along more fluid doctrinal lines (Stark, 1999: 260). This goes some way towards rebutting the assumptions put forward by the bottom up/demand side theory of secularisation (Wilson, 1966: 61). The ‘market’ interpretation of religious adherence may provide a better way of understanding the extent to which modern societies have been secularised (Wilson, 1966: 82). The dynamic interactions that take place in the social space give rise to the possibility of more fluid (and therefore more vibrant) religious denominational structures that may rehabilitate the spectrum of religious life in postmodern societies (Stark and Iannaccone, 1994: 231). It could be posited that this trend, directed from the top down and informed by a strong supply side approach borrowed from the field of economics, is ultimately a better way to understand the reasons behind the persistence of religious life in modern societies (Asad, 2003: 14). Conclusion By way of conclusion, it may be posited that the bottom up/demand side theory of secularisation provides with some interesting insights regarding the evolution of religious life in societies that have been affected by the process of industrialisation and modernisation, to be sure, the application of scientific methods of interpreting the nature of reality resulted in profound changes in the nature and extent of religious practice in Western European and North American societies (Berger, 1969: 77). The specialisation of technical knowledge production removed power from the religious authorities regarding the way in which knowledge was to be pursued, created and spread (Norris, 2004: 41). Moreover, the onset of modernisation and industrialisation gave the state a great deal of power in order to provide welfare provisions for its citizens, hence stripping the church institutions of their functional purpose (Fitzgerald, 2000: 122). Notwithstanding the validity of these arguments, they do not explain the persistence of religious attendance throughout the ages (Stark, 1993: 390). There seems to be an inherent human drive to seek the ultimate explanations of the nature of existence by referring to supernatural forces, which explains the resilience of religious practice across the ages. The postmodern condition has given rise to new forms of religious and spiritual practices that thrive thanks to the way in which they are able to utilise technology in order to fulfil their mission (Asad, 1993: 45). For all the reasons cited above, it could be concluded that the theory of secularisation fails to explain the continued interest shown by people in pursuing spiritual avenues for personal advancement; an interest that seems to be more vibrant than ever in the age of fluid doctrinal requirements for religious practice. Bibliography Asad, T. (1993) Genealogies of Religion, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD Asad, T. 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